Class Notes: November 29-December 10

Class Notes: November 29 – December 10

We discussed Hamlet extensively and watched segments of three different film productions.

Important things we discussed:

·         How innocent/carefree is Ophelia?  She was raised by Polonius and is a sibling to Laertes (both are very manipulative men)

·         There is significant evidence that Ophelia and Laertes are involved in an incestuous relationship, as are Gertrude and Hamlet (see film productions)

·         Ophelia is most likely pregnant.  “There’s rue for you, and here’s some for me. / We may call it herb of grace o’ Sundays.  O you must wear / your rue with a difference” (4.5.180-182).  Rue is a flower that symbolizes regret (Gertrude’s use for rue), but it also is an abortive agent (Ophelia’s use for rue)

·         Ophelia also drowns herself, which at the time was the typical thing that pregnant, single women would do

The Film Productions:

1.      Sir Laurence Olivier (1948)

·         The most famous and critically acclaimed film production of Hamlet

·         Major plot difference: Hamlet is portrayed as in love with Horatio instead of Ophelia

·         Begins with lines 23-36 of Act I, Scene 4 and introduces the play by saying “this is the tragedy of a man who could not make up his mind”

2.      David Tennant (BBC)

·         Minimal stage scenery

·         Incestuous relationship between Gertrude and Hamlet

·         Same actor plays Claudius and Hamlet

3.      Kenneth Branagh (1996)

·         Incestuous relationship between Gertrude and Hamlet, but not very strongly portrayed

·         Set during the Victorian Era because Branagh wanted to use a particular Victorian castle

These different interpretations as well as the Shakespeare in the Bush piece that we read evidence that Hamlet is universal in that it can be applied to all cultures, but each culture reads into the text a little differently.

Class Notes: November 15-26

Class Notes (November 15-26)

During these two weeks, we focused on the play Hamlet.

Background Information

·         Originated as a Norse legend

·         Hamlet’s original name = Amleth (displacement of H)

·         Was first printed in Paris in 1514, was translated to French in 1570, appeared in English text in 1608

·         In the end of the original, Hamlet lives and becomes the King of Denmark

Revenge Tragedy

·         Fall of someone whose character is good, believable, and consistent (Hamlet)

·         Fatal flaw (Hamlet’s hesitation/indecision)

·         Inspired by Seneca, but made popular during the Elizabethan era

·         Hero is hesitant (the entirety of the play involves around  Hamlet’s hesitation and reluctance to kill Claudius)

·         There usually is a question of the hero’s sanity (Hamlet sees a ghost; seeing ghosts is not normal)

·         Hero often contemplates suicide

·         Multiple levels of intrigue

·         There is an able, scheming villain (Claudius)

·         Abundance of soliloquies (Hamlet has more lines than any other character by far; he talks all the time)

·         Sensationalized idea of murder on stage or exhibition of dead bodies (everyone dies in the final scene)

For more detail: http://www.humx.org/vocabulary/revenge-tragedy

The View of Marriage (The View that Hamlet Adopts while at Wittenberg)

·         When a couple marries, they become one flesh, literally.  They are considered the same person.  Therefore, in Hamlet Jr.’s eyes, Hamlet Sr. and Gertrude are one flesh, or one person… even after Hamlet Sr.’s death.  As a result, when Gertrude marries Claudius, Hamlet Sr.’s brother, Hamlet Jr. interprets this as Gertrude marrying her brother

·         This is fundamentally different from the view that the rest of the characters in Hamlet adopt.  Everyone in Denmark sees Claudius’ and Gertrude’s marriage as normal, political, and not as incest

·         Why would Shakespeare bring this up?  Because one of his biggest patrons is Elizabeth I.  This move essentially reinforces Elizabeth’s right to the throne, because her father, Henry VIII accused his first wife, Katharine of Aragon, of consummating her marriage to his brother.  This is significant because Henry VIII and Katharine had a daughter, Mary (Queen Mary I, or Bloody Mary), who would be considered illegitimate if Henry VIII’s and Katharine’s marriage had been void.  Therefore, Mary would not have a claim to the throne, and Elizabeth (the daughter of Henry VIII and his second wife, Anne Boleyn) would be the rightful Queen of England

Class Notes: November 8-12

                                                       Class Notes: November 8-12

This week we focused on two main things: Oedipus Rex (see wikis) and constructing AP-level thesis statements.

Things to remember when writing theses:

·         The thesis will always answer the prompt.

·         You must always answer the hidden “so what?” question, even if the prompt does not directly instruct you to.  Every AP essay prompt is the same: What techniques does the author use to create meaning?

·         Techniques can be skipped in the introductory paragraph, and should be if your score goal is an 8 or a 9.  When you include them in your introduction, it tempts you to structure your essay by technique, and that is not the ideal way to organize an essay.  Your goal should be to structure by claim and then use various techniques as evidence (or warrants) supporting each claim

·         Be clear!  Clarity is essential!  Because thesis statements are supposed to setup the rest of your paper, if your thesis doesn’t make sense you’re setting yourself up for failure from step one

·         Thesis statements can and should be more than one sentence

Helpful websites with tips and examples:

http://www.apstudynotes.org/english/sample-essays/thesis-statements/

http://apcentral.collegeboard.com/apc/public/preap/teachers_corner/44056.html

Other things to keep in mind:

·         Long works are underlined.  Anything underlined can also be italicized, but you can only use on or the other in any given essay

·         Short works are in “quotations”

·         If you pronounce the extra ‘s when showing ownership, write it (ex: the girls’ CDs vs. Ms. Holmes’s CDs)

Book Review Outside Reading: November 15

Book Review Outside Reading

“Stray Cat Blues” by Liz Phair

The New York Times November 4, 2010

            In “Stray Cat Blues,” Liz Phair offers a generous review of Keith Richards’ autobiography, Life.  Phair seems to really admire Richards and excuses most of his mistakes, but is careful to not overlook all of his flaws; thus her review is fairly objective.  However she is careful in the techniques she chooses to use and is therefore able to convince the reader to highly esteem both Keith Richards and the Rolling Stones.

            Phair deconstructs Richards’ life in a way that explains most of his life choices, and is thus able to displace a lot of the negativity synonymous with a musician’s lifestyle.  She does so by choosing positive diction such as “avatar,” “legendary,” and “underdog.”  This is her main strength: Phair’s word choice and use of biographical criticism allow her to portray Richards as a relatively respectable individual, despite his promiscuity and addiction to cocaine.  She is careful to also note that he had affairs with two of his band mates’ girlfriends, and faults him for this choice.  However, it only takes one paragraph for Phair to shift back to her original tone of admiration and reverence.  She paints Richards’ life as glamorous and paints Richards himself as dedicated and committed.  As a result, she is able to offer a surprisingly positive critique of Richards and his autobiography.

            This review’s weakness, on the other hand, is the informal tone that Phair adopts.  She is able to capture Richards’ sense of humor by recreating it in her own piece, but she is so informal that the review loses its validity.  Phair refers to Richards by his first name, swears, and is openly sarcastic and stereotypical.  After describing Richards’ involvement in the Boy Scouts of America program, she offers a disclaimer to the reader.  “For parents keen on enrolling their children in wholesome activities to secure a respectable future and avoid exactly what became of Keith Richards, keep in mind: he was a choirboy, too” (2).  Although funny, this stereotype is a discredit to Phair.  By adopting such a common tone, she undermines her own status as a professional; she seems to be critiquing Richards’ autobiography as a friend and not as a journalist for The New York Times.  As a result, I responded skeptically to her review.  This informality would definitely be inappropriate for an AP essay.

Reflective Essay Outside Reading: November 15

Reflective Essay Outside Reading

“Guy Walks into a Bar Car” by David Sedaris

The New Yorker April 20, 2009

In his essay, “Guy Walks into a Bar Car,” David Sedaris describes his attempts to start a relationship with the various men he has encountered while traveling.  He limits his discussion to train travel, and as he employs different techniques, he is able to effectively communicate and craft a humorous story that is easy to read.

            Sedaris makes a series of rhetoric choices that keep the reader engaged and allow him to effectively communicate.  He uses several short sentences when recounting the discussions he’s had with the different people he has met, which help to create a suspenseful, fast-paced story.  These sentences often also act as interrupters, which quicken Sedaris’ pace even more.

As his goal is to find a new boyfriend, Sedaris often is very suggestive and flirtatious.  The use of this type of diction allows the reader to connect with Sedaris, because everyone understands what it is like to pursue a relationship. Another way Sedaris is able to connect with his reader is through his sense of humor.  He puts many jokes into his writing, and is thus able to capture the reader’s attention and create a suspenseful atmosphere.  These jokes, in addition to the prevalent slang used throughout the essay, also create a common and informal tone that ultimately is a big strength of Sedaris’s.  This informality allows Sedaris to keep his reader laughing.  However, this common, everyday tone is one that would be inappropriate for an AP essay.

            Sedaris’s use of sarcasm also helps to create an informal tone.  He ends his essay by referring to the jokes that he began with, and is very contradictory when he does.  He spends his entire essay moving quickly from attempted relationship to attempted relationship, and then ends by essentially condemning himself.  “I’d never really trusted people who went directly from one relationship to the next, so after my train pulled into Penn Station, and after I’d taken the subway home, I’d wait a few hours, or maybe even a full day, before dialing his number and asking if he’d like to hear a joke.”  By employing this sarcasm, Sedaris essentially gives the reader permission to laugh at him, rather than laugh with him.  As a result, Sedaris’ sarcasm and the informal, everyday tone that he adopts allow him to craft a well-structured, easy-to-read essay that keeps the reader laughing and entertained.

           

Editorial Outside Reading: November 15

Editorial Outside Reading

“Football, Dogfighting, and Brain Damage” by Malcolm Gladwell

The New Yorker October 19, 2009

In “Football, Dogfighting, and Brain Damage,” Malcolm Gladwell condemns the football program and links it to dogfighting, a sport many consider to be cruel.  In his editorial, Gladwell’s underlying argument is that football and dogfighting are in fact quite similar, and he points out that brain damage is often a result of America’s favorite sport.  Gladwell employs many techniques this piece, and ultimately constructs a well-crafted and persuasive essay.

In this editorial, Gladwell paints a vivid picture for his reader.  He begins “Football, Dogfighting, and Brain Damage” with an account of Kyle Turley, a professional football player whose career has started to impact other areas of his life.  Gladwell writes this account as a story and is thus able to effectively capture the reader’s attention.  He also employs several onomatopoeias that allow the reader to feel as if they themselves are a part of Kyle’s Turley life.  However, the majority of his editorial is not an attempt to tell the reader a story.  Gladwell quickly navigates away from the narrative he begins with, and introduces dogfighting.  In doing so, Gladwell is able to play to the emotions of his reader; by linking football to something that most would agree is horrendous, he effectively sets up his thesis.  Gladwell also provides extensive medical data backing up his claims.  As a result, he is able to smoothly guide his reader from claim to claim, ultimately arriving back at his thesis.

            By adopting a powerful voice, Gladwell magnifies the severity of the brain damage football can cause.  He employs severe diction that helps to create a harsh tone.  The questions he poses directly to the reader also help him to effectively communicate the dangers of football, but this informality would be inappropriate for an AP essay.  Although they create an informal atmosphere, these questions ultimately are a strength of Gladwell’s.  His other strengths include clarity, precision, and his ability to connect with the reader.  Gladwell’s only weakness, on the other hand, is his extensive use of narration.  Although examples are important, I think Gladwell could have eliminated some of the examples he gave and instead provided more of his own insight into the brain damage football can cause.

            As mentioned, Gladwell is able to play to the reader’s emotions.  In the end of “Football, Dogfighting, and Brain Damage,” Gladwell essentially blames the reader for the lack of action taken to help prevent this brain damage.  “Boxers ran a twenty-per-cent risk of dementia.  Yet boxers continue to box.  Why?  Because people still go to boxing matches” (9).  As a result, Gladwell’s argument, although informal, is effective.  He not only persuades the reader that his thesis is correct, but he forces them to reevaluate their own contributions to the brain damage that athletes often face.  In doing so, Gladwell left little room for doubt in my mind.

           

Class Notes: October 25-29

Class Notes: October 25-29

This week we began learning about drama and started reading Oedipus Rex.

The Nature of Drama (Perrine: Chapter One)

“Much drama is poetry” (Perrine 1115).

Impact of drama: direct and immediate

Two ways to enter the character’s mind

1.      Soliloquy: characters are speaking to themselves

2.      Aside: characters turn away from the play and speak directly to the audience

“The playwright is not dependent on the power of words alone” (Perrine 1115).

Drama is communal; poetry is individual.  Communal effects are more intense.

Romantic: imbued with or dominated by idealism, a desire for adventure, chivalry, etc.; characterized by a preoccupation with love or by the idealizing of love of one’s beloved

Satiric: a literary style, in verse or prose, in which human folly and vice are held up to scorn, derision, or ridicule

Protagonist: the leading character, hero, or heroine of a drama

Antagonist: the adversary of the hero or protagonist of a drama

Foil Characters: a minor character that has traits that are in contrast with main character

Plot: the story line

Suspense: a state or condition of mental uncertainty or excitement

Themes: the unifying or dominant ideas; motifs

Didactic: teaching or intended to teach a moral lesson

Dramatic Exposition: The presentation through dialogue of information about events that occurred before the action of a play, or that occur offstage or between the staged actions; this may also refer to the presentation of information about individual characters' backgrounds or the general situation (political, historical, etc.) in which the action takes place

Realistic and Nonrealistic Drama (Perrine: Chapter Two)

Actors are required “to depart from an absolute realism (Perrine 1160) when they perform on stage.

“All degrees of realism are possible” (Perrine 1161).

Chorus: a group of actors speaking in unison (a chant) while dancing formally; characteristic of Greek drama

Audience members must take on a “temporary suspension of disbelief,” according to Coleridge.

Dramatic Realism: descriptive, not evaluative

“Human truth, rather than fidelity to fact, is the highest achievement of literary art” (Perrine 1164).

Tragedy and Comedy (Perrine: Chapter Three)

Two drama masks represent tragedy and comedy

(Picture: http://www.bellport-playcrafters.com/trivia.html)

Tragedy and Comedy often overlap.  “If we take them too seriously, the tragic mask may laugh, and the comic mask weep” (Perrine 1310).

Perrine’s Archetypal Notion of Tragedy

1.      The tragic hero is one of noble stature

2.      The tragic hero is good, though not perfect, and his fall results from committing what Aristotle calls “an act of injustice” (hamartia) either through ignorance or from a conviction that some greater good will be served

3.      The hero’s downfall is his own fault, the result of his own free choice- not the result of pure accident or someone else’ villainy or some overriding malignant fate (Pathetic vs. Tragic Events)

4.      The hero’s misfortune is not wholly deserved.  It’s seen as a waste of human potential

5.      The tragic fall is not pure loss; results in a change from ignorance to knowledge (ex: death of Romeo and Juliet brings the Montagues and Capulets closer together)

6.      Tragedy, when well performed, does not leave its audience in a state of depression

Comedy

·         Mask can be seen as laughing or smiling, and comedy can thus be scornful or satirical

·         Exposes human folly

·         May be educative, but not too much

·         Characters are usually common, not noble

·         No organic unity typically

Melodrama

·         “Melodrama, like tragedy, attempts to arouse feelings of fear and pity, but it does so ordinarily through cruder means” (Perrine 1309).

·         Good triumphs over evil; villainy is crushed/destroyed

·         Hero marries heroine

·         Is not as complex as tragedy and does not offer such tremendous insights

·         “It is usually commercial rather than literary” (Perrine 1310).

Farce

·         The goal of farce is to make people laugh hysterically

·         Violent, physical conflicts are typical

·         Often seems absurd and impossible

·         “Coarse wit, practical jokes, and physical action are stables” (Perrine 1310).

·         “It is usually commercial rather than literary” (Perrine 1310).

Terms concerning Drama:

http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072405228/student_view0/drama_glossary.html

http://quizlet.com/130882/drama-literary-terms-flash-cards/

Tragedy vs. Comedy

http://condor.depaul.edu/~dsimpson/tlove/comic-tragic.html

Class Notes: October 11-15, 18-22

Okay, I think I finally figured this out.  I'm sorry they're late.

Class Notes (October 11-15, 18-22)

Tone (Perrine: Chapter Ten)

·        “Tone, in literature, may be defined as the writer’s or speaker’s attitude toward the subject, the reader, or herself or himself” (Perrine 880).

·        “Almost all of the elements of poetry help to indicate [a work’s] tone: connotation, imagery, and metaphor; irony and understatement; rhythm, sentence construction, and formal pattern.  There is therefore no pattern for recognizing tone” (Perrine 880).

·        Recognizing tone correctly is vital to any analysis of literature

http://www.blms.issaquah.wednet.edu/Teachers/greningerh/Tone-Moodwkst.pdf Tone vs. Mood

Style vs. Tone vs. Voice

Style: the language conventions used to construct the story; common styles change over time

·        Refers to the authorial persona’s personality

·        Superficial: “Here’s who I want to be as a writer”

·        Fairly stable, but it shifts infrequently when an author’s persona changes

·        Discussed in terms of character

·        Effect created by an author’s choice of techniques

Tone: the attitude that the story creates towards its subject matter

·        Can and does shift (sometimes often) with mood/subject

·        Refers to the speaker/narrator’s attitude

·        Discussed in terms of emotion

·        Happens in our heads (a deduction or an inference)

·        Effect created by an author’s choice of techniques

Voice: the communicative effect created by the author’s style

·        Does not have to do with the author

·        Belongs to the speaker/narrator’s personality

·        Can and does shift (infrequently) when the narrator is dynamic

·        Discussed in terms of character

·        Effect created by an author’s choice of techniques

http://www.differencebetween.net/language/difference-between-voice-and-tone/

1.      Voice can be referred to a writer’s attitude towards his subject or readers. Tone can be termed as that reflects the mood of a writer.
2. While voice can be attributed as a writer’s representation of the truth that he depicts, tone only pertains to his attitude.
3. Voice can be called as authoritative and tone as something that is strong.

Musical Devices (Perrine: Chapter Eleven)

Alliteration: the repetition of initial consonant sounds (ex: pretty in pink)

Assonance: the repetition of vowel sounds (ex: mad as a hatter)

Consonance: the repetition of final consonant sounds (ex: all’s well that ends well)

Rhyme: the repetition of the accented vowel sounds and any succeeding consonant sounds

Masculine Rhyme: the rhyme involves only one syllable

Feminine Rhyme: the rhyme involves two or more syllables

Internal Rhyme: the rhyming words are within the lines

End Rhyme: the rhyming words are at the ends of lines

Approximate Rhymes (or Slant Rhymes): words with any sound similarity (close or fairly remote)

“Used skillfully and judiciously, however, musical devices provide a palpable and delicate pleasure to the ear and, ever more important, add dimension to meaning” (Perrine 906).

Rhythm: any wavelike recurrence of motion or sound

Accented/Stressed Syllables: syllables given more prominence in pronunciation than the rest

Rhetorical Stresses: different intended meanings will produce different rhythms even in identical statements

End-Stopped Line: one in which the end of the line corresponds with a natural speech pause

Run-on Line: one in which the sense of the line moves without pause on into the next line

Caesura: a pause that occurs within a line, either grammatical or rhetorical

Free Verse: the predominant type of poetry now being written

Prose poetry: depends entirely on prose rhythms

Meter: the identifying characteristic of rhythmic language that we can tap our feet to

“Rhythm designates the flow of actual, pronounced sound, whereas meter refers to the patterns that sounds flow when a poet has arranged them into metrical verse” (Perrine 918).

Foot: basic unit of meter; usually consists of one accented syllable plus one or two unaccented syllables (ex: Iamb, Trochee, Anapest, Dactyl, and Spondee)

Stanza: a group of lines whose metrical pattern is repeated throughout the poem

Metrical Variations: variations in the meter; call attention to some of the sounds because they depart from what is regular (via substitution, extra-metrical syllables, or truncation.  These are usually very obvious because they deviate from the usual structure)

Substitution: replacing the regular foot with another one

Extra-Metrical Syllables: extra syllable added either at the beginning or end of lines

Truncation: the omission of an unaccented syllable at either end of a line

Scansion: the process of defining the metrical form of a poem

1.      We identify the prevailing foot

2.      We name the number of feet in a line, if this length follows any pattern

3.      We describe the stanzaic pattern if there is one

Generalizations about Scansion:

1.      “Good readers will not ordinarily stop to scan a poem they are reading, and they certainly will not read a poem aloud with the exaggerated emphasis on accented syllables that we sometimes give them in order to make the metrical pattern more apparent” (Perrine 925).

2.      Scansion only begins to reveal the rhythmical quality of a poem.

3.      The divisions between feet have no meaning except to help us identify the meter.

4.      Perfect regularity of meter is no criterion of merit.

Grammatical or Rhetorical Pauses: pauses caused by punctuation or not

Sound and Meaning (Perrine: Chapter Thirteen)

“Rhythm and sound cooperate to produce what we call the music of poetry” (Perrine 941).

Onomatopoeia: the words sound like what they mean (ex: snap, crackle, pop)

Phonetic Intensives: whose sound, by a process as yet obscure, to some degree connects with their meaning (flame, flare, flash, flicker, and flimmer are all associated with moving light)

Euphonious: sounds that are smooth and pleasant sounding (lots of vowels)

Cacophonous: sounds that are rough and harsh sounding (lots of consonants)

Synesthesia: the stimulation of two or more sense simultaneously, especially when one sense perception is described in terms of another

Pattern (Perrine: Chapter Fourteen)

“Art, ultimately, is organization.  It is a searching after order and significance.  Most artists seek to transform the chaotic nature of experience into a meaningful and coherent pattern, largely by means of selection and arrangement” (Perrine 961).

Structure: the arrangement of ideas, images, thoughts, and sentences

Form: an external pattern or shape

Three Kinds of Form:

1.      Continuous: element of design is slight (ex: “The Widow’s Lament in Springtime”)

2.      Stanzaic: the poet writes in a series of stanzas (traditional pattern or not)

3.      Fixed: traditional pattern that applies to a whole poem (rondeaus, rondels, villanelles, triolets, sestinas, ballades, double ballades, and others in French poetry; limerick, sonnet, and villanelle in English poetry)

Limerick: aa3bb2a3.  Freely allows the use of a substitute foot for the first foot in any line but insists on strict adherence to the form for the rest of the line

Sonnet: less rigid than the limerick; fourteen lines in length, and is almost always in iambic pentameter

1.      Italian or Petrarchan Sonnet: divided into an octave (abbaabba) and a sestet (cdcdcd or cdecde), separated by a space of some kind that usually corresponds to a division of thought

2.      English of Shakespearean Sonnet: consists of three quatrains and a concluding couplet (abab cdcd efef gg)

3.      Villanelle: requires only two rhyme sounds; its nineteen lines are divided into five three-line stanzas (tercets) and a four-line concluding quatrain; uses refrain lines (AbA abA abA abA abAA)

Evaluating Poetry (Perrine: Chapters Fifteen and Sixteen)

Sentimentality: the indulgence in emotion for its own sake, or expression of more emotion that an occasion warrants

Rhetorical Poetry: uses a language more glittering and high-flown than its substance warrants

Didactic Poetry: has a primary purpose to teach or preach

Questions to Consider:

1.      How fully has it accomplished its purpose?

2.      How important is its purpose?

“Great poetry engages the whole person- senses, imagination, emotion, intellect; it does not touch us merely on one or two sides of our nature.  Great poetry seeks not merely to entertain us but to bring us- along with pure pleasure- fresh insights, or renewed insights, and important insights, into the nature of human experience” (Perrine 999).

Class Notes: September 20-24

Class Notes (September 20-24)

Figurative Language

Similes/Metaphors: both used as a means of comparing things that are essentially unlike (example: Taking that math test was as hard as flying a plane.)

Personification: consists in giving the attributes of a human being to an animal, an object, or a concept (example: The Barbie stretched as she woke up from a long nap.)

Apostrophe: addressing someone absent or dead or something nonhuman as if that person or thing were present and alive and could reply to what is being said (example: addressing the wind directly. ‘A breeze would be nice, wind.’)

Synecdoche: the use of the part for the whole (example: Shakespeare refers to a married man as a “married ear”)

Metonymy: the use of something closely related for the thing actually meant

Dead Metaphors: where the word metaphor is itself a metonymy for all figurative speech

Symbol: functions literally and figuratively; something that means more than what it is

Allegory: system of related comparisons (example: The Wizard of Oz)

Paradox: an apparent contradiction that is nevertheless somehow true (example: “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times” (Dickens 1))

Overstatement (hyperbole): exaggeration in the service of truth (example: That’s only a million miles away.)

Understatement: saying less than one means (example: That looks nice.)

** Overstatements and understatements often depend on the context of a situation.

The top 20 figures of speech and examples: http://grammar.about.com/od/rhetoricstyle/a/20figures.htm

“We do it because we can say what we want to say more vividly and forcefully by figures of speech than we can by saying it directly.  And we can say more by figurative statement than we can by literal statement.  Figures of speech offer another way of adding extra dimensions to language” (Perrine 786).

Irony

Irony: meanings that extend beyond its use

Verbal Irony: saying the opposite of what one means (often confused with sarcasm and satire)

Sarcasm: simply bitter or cutting speech, intended to wound the feelings (comes from the Greek word “to tear flesh”)

Satire: ridicule with the purpose of bringing about reform

Dramatic Irony: discrepancy between what the speaker says and what is meant

Irony of Situation: discrepancy exists between the actual circumstances and those that would seem appropriate or between what one anticipates and what actually comes to pass

Irony sometimes employs sarcasm and/or satire, but not always (Irony isn’t cruel or kind)

Definitions and examples of the types of irony: http://jbernard.teach-nology.com/Short%20Stories/Lamb%20to%20the%20Slaughter/Three%20Types%20of%20Irony%20-%20Notes.htm

The Rhetorical Situation

The context for an act of communication

Subject: What is your topic?  What are your main ideas?  What details and examples will you use to support them?

Purpose: What do you want to get out of this?  Why are you communicating?  These purposes are often mixed

Audience: Who do you imagine will receive this communication?  What are the limits of the group you are addressing?  Are they limited by vocabulary?  Understanding?  Age?  Biases?  What are the audience’s expectations of you as a communicator?

Speaker (Persona): What kind of a person do you want to seem like as you send this message?  Who are you speaking as?  What will you attitude be?  What personal characteristics will you use to best connect with you audience?  What will help you accomplish your goal as a communicator?

Main Purposes of Communication:

1. To entertain
2. To inform
3. To persuade
4. To reflect

Description of the Rhetorical Situation: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/625/1

"Rhetoric is a mode of altering reality, not by the direct application of energy to objects, but by the creation of discourse which changes reality through the mediation of thought and action. The rhetor alters reality by bringing into existence a discourse of such character that the audience, in thought and action, is so engaged that it becomes mediator of change. In this rhetoric is always persuasive." – Lloyd Bitzer

“Rhetoric is the art of persuasion. Without any knowledge of it, we are mere pawns in a game played by those with influence.  With it, we may be the influencers or we may be those who choose to resist” (http://mreldridge.net/Rhetoric.aspx)

Argument

One way to accomplish the goal of persuasion

Writers can appeal to one or any number of the following types of arguments.

1. Ethos (our ethics)
2. Pathos (our emotions)
3. Logos (our logic)

Parts of an Argument:

1. Thesis: the one main point a paper; the opinion that you as a writer are trying to prove.  A thesis forms a contract of expectation between the reader and writer; the goal is to establish trust between the two.  Also, a thesis sets a pattern for the author to follow as they write.
2. Claims: the topic sentences of your body paragraphs.  Claims should form a step-by-step breadcrumb trail so that the reader should be able to guess your thesis.  Claim 1 + Claim 2 + Claim 3 (etc) = Thesis.
3. Warrants: the explanation of your reasoning that ties your evidence to your claims.  Warrants explain what your evidence means.
4. Evidence: the facts that show that your claims are reasonable

Necessary: a part of an argument that you must deal with in order to be successful

Sufficient: “enough”; have you given enough evidence for your claims to be accepted?

Details for constructing a thesis: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/618/01/