Class Notes: September 20-24

Class Notes (September 20-24)

Figurative Language

Similes/Metaphors: both used as a means of comparing things that are essentially unlike (example: Taking that math test was as hard as flying a plane.)

Personification: consists in giving the attributes of a human being to an animal, an object, or a concept (example: The Barbie stretched as she woke up from a long nap.)

Apostrophe: addressing someone absent or dead or something nonhuman as if that person or thing were present and alive and could reply to what is being said (example: addressing the wind directly. ‘A breeze would be nice, wind.’)

Synecdoche: the use of the part for the whole (example: Shakespeare refers to a married man as a “married ear”)

Metonymy: the use of something closely related for the thing actually meant

Dead Metaphors: where the word metaphor is itself a metonymy for all figurative speech

Symbol: functions literally and figuratively; something that means more than what it is

Allegory: system of related comparisons (example: The Wizard of Oz)

Paradox: an apparent contradiction that is nevertheless somehow true (example: “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times” (Dickens 1))

Overstatement (hyperbole): exaggeration in the service of truth (example: That’s only a million miles away.)

Understatement: saying less than one means (example: That looks nice.)

** Overstatements and understatements often depend on the context of a situation.

The top 20 figures of speech and examples: http://grammar.about.com/od/rhetoricstyle/a/20figures.htm

“We do it because we can say what we want to say more vividly and forcefully by figures of speech than we can by saying it directly.  And we can say more by figurative statement than we can by literal statement.  Figures of speech offer another way of adding extra dimensions to language” (Perrine 786).

Irony

Irony: meanings that extend beyond its use

Verbal Irony: saying the opposite of what one means (often confused with sarcasm and satire)

Sarcasm: simply bitter or cutting speech, intended to wound the feelings (comes from the Greek word “to tear flesh”)

Satire: ridicule with the purpose of bringing about reform

Dramatic Irony: discrepancy between what the speaker says and what is meant

Irony of Situation: discrepancy exists between the actual circumstances and those that would seem appropriate or between what one anticipates and what actually comes to pass

Irony sometimes employs sarcasm and/or satire, but not always (Irony isn’t cruel or kind)

Definitions and examples of the types of irony: http://jbernard.teach-nology.com/Short%20Stories/Lamb%20to%20the%20Slaughter/Three%20Types%20of%20Irony%20-%20Notes.htm

The Rhetorical Situation

The context for an act of communication

Subject: What is your topic?  What are your main ideas?  What details and examples will you use to support them?

Purpose: What do you want to get out of this?  Why are you communicating?  These purposes are often mixed

Audience: Who do you imagine will receive this communication?  What are the limits of the group you are addressing?  Are they limited by vocabulary?  Understanding?  Age?  Biases?  What are the audience’s expectations of you as a communicator?

Speaker (Persona): What kind of a person do you want to seem like as you send this message?  Who are you speaking as?  What will you attitude be?  What personal characteristics will you use to best connect with you audience?  What will help you accomplish your goal as a communicator?

Main Purposes of Communication:

1. To entertain
2. To inform
3. To persuade
4. To reflect

Description of the Rhetorical Situation: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/625/1

"Rhetoric is a mode of altering reality, not by the direct application of energy to objects, but by the creation of discourse which changes reality through the mediation of thought and action. The rhetor alters reality by bringing into existence a discourse of such character that the audience, in thought and action, is so engaged that it becomes mediator of change. In this rhetoric is always persuasive." – Lloyd Bitzer

“Rhetoric is the art of persuasion. Without any knowledge of it, we are mere pawns in a game played by those with influence.  With it, we may be the influencers or we may be those who choose to resist” (http://mreldridge.net/Rhetoric.aspx)

Argument

One way to accomplish the goal of persuasion

Writers can appeal to one or any number of the following types of arguments.

1. Ethos (our ethics)
2. Pathos (our emotions)
3. Logos (our logic)

Parts of an Argument:

1. Thesis: the one main point a paper; the opinion that you as a writer are trying to prove.  A thesis forms a contract of expectation between the reader and writer; the goal is to establish trust between the two.  Also, a thesis sets a pattern for the author to follow as they write.
2. Claims: the topic sentences of your body paragraphs.  Claims should form a step-by-step breadcrumb trail so that the reader should be able to guess your thesis.  Claim 1 + Claim 2 + Claim 3 (etc) = Thesis.
3. Warrants: the explanation of your reasoning that ties your evidence to your claims.  Warrants explain what your evidence means.
4. Evidence: the facts that show that your claims are reasonable

Necessary: a part of an argument that you must deal with in order to be successful

Sufficient: “enough”; have you given enough evidence for your claims to be accepted?

Details for constructing a thesis: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/618/01/